Telah dikatakan sebelumnya bahwa kebanyakan para ahli tafsir dan ilmul kalam (teologi islam) berpendapat bahwa ayat-ayat Al-quran dalam masalah freewill (kebebasan) and destiny (ketentuan yang sudah ditentukan) ini saling bertentangan. Oleh sebab itu, mereka berlindung di balik penakwilan sebagiannya agar bersesuaian dengan sebagian yang lainnya. Berkenaan dengan itu perlu kiranya kita untuk mengingat kembali apa [...]

Although he summarizes what appears to be the traditional argument against circularity, viz. that if two possible things were said to cause each other, each would precede the other an consequently itself, which is absurd, – Al-Razi proposes a different argument which he states thus: “The effect (ma‘lul) requires the cause. Now if each of [...]

The later history of Kalam reflects greater refinement in employing the technique of argument and a greater subtlety in handling logical concepts. Ibn Khaldun distinguishes between modern and the ancient stages in the development of Kalam and assigns the credit for introducing the ‘method of he moderns’ to Al-Ghazali. Whether the credit for initiating this [...]

Al-Baqilani (d. 1013) who belonged to the second generation of Ash‘arite doctors and who is credited with refining the methods of Kalam, sums up this argument in succinct way. The world being temporal (hadith), he writes, it must of necessity have a Maker and Fashioner (muhdith wa musawwir), “just as writing must have a writer, [...]